What does it really mean and how does it apply to me?

We all have heard about this baffling term called "Human Factors". What does it really mean and how does it apply to me? Is this another one of those psycho-babble talks that are to give me the 'warm and fuzzies"?

No.

In fact, respected research has been effective in finding how the interface of man and machine can be performed safely and efficiently. Proceeding beyond, and/or 'stretching the envelope' of this interface, however, can prove deadly to either entity (or both).

The study of human factors in an aircraft accident is so significant that the FAA's Academy in Oklahoma City provides an intensive course on the subject for all their inspectors. [excerpts from Human Factors in Aircraft Accident Investigation, Course 00008]

HUMAN FACTORS

While the investigation of human factors represents only one aspect of an investigator's duties during an aviation accident investigation, it is, in view of the statistics, a most critical element. Approximately 75-80 % of all aircraft accidents or incidents are a result of human error. Documentation supports human error as a causal factor in 65-70% of air carrier operations, nearly 80% of commuter operations. and nearly 90% of general aviation operations. Also, statistics show that most accidents occur during takeoff and landing when workload is high and operational and environmental factors are changing rapidly. The first sections of this discussion will focus on general aspects relating to human error factors of both flying and non-flying personnel. An overview of pilot and maintenance factors of note to an investigator are also included.

SECTION A - OVERVIEW

Human factors is about people in their working and living environments; it is about their interaction with machines, equipment, and procedures. Just as important, it is about their relationship with other people. One definition of human factors is to optimize the relationship between people and their activities, by the systematic application of human sciences, integrated within the framework of systems engineering. Its objectives can be seen as effectiveness of the system, which includes safety and efficiency, and the well-being of the individual. Another definition is: human factors is a multidisciplinary field that draws on the methods and principles of the behavioral and social sciences. engineering, and physiology to optimize human performance and reduce human error. Individual errors can degrade the performance and safety of a system because of the way the hardware is designed or because of inadequate operator training. Errors in design, management of crew tasks and of aviation organizations degrade system performance and cause accidents.

The study of human factors in aviation attempts to deal with these diverse elements. Also included, among others, are human behavior and performance; decision-making and other cognitive processes; the design of controls and displays, flight deck and cabin layout; communication and software aspects of computers; maps, charts, and documentation; as well as the refinement of staff selection and training.

Errors

Defined Definitions are necessary for achieving commonality and agreement among terms used in investigative work, communications, and written reports. The following terms applicable to errors are provided to that end. An error is defined as a unintended and inappropriate physical or mental operation. An error of commission is a result of operator actions. Errors of omission occur through the failure to act, for example, from neglect or forgetfulness. Examples of selected terms follow:

Adjustment Errors - Operating a control too slowly or too quickly, moving a switch to the wrong position, and/or following the incorrect sequence in the operation of several controls or switches.

Forgetting Errors - Failing to check, set, or use a control or switch at the proper time.

Reversal Errors - Moving, a control or switch in a direction opposite to that necessary to produce a desired result.

Substitution Errors - Confusing one control or switch with another or failing, to identify a control or switch when it was needed.

Unintentional Activation Errors - Accidentally operating a control or switch.

Habit Pattern Interference Errors - Occur when an operator reverts back to a previously learned response (on a different aircraft make and/or model) that is inappropriate to the situation in the present make and model.

Habit Pattern Substitution Errors - Occur when the operator reverts to previously learned responses that are inappropriate when the appropriate response is unavailable due to a lack of procedural knowledge.
Given a situation where a pilot does all his/her flying from one seat. either the left or the right, multiple errors may occur when trying to fly the aircraft from the "unfamiliar" seat. Reversal and substitution errors, and habit pattern errors (both interference and substitution) may occur. When a pilot is used to pushing the throttle or power levers with the right hand, and that hand is now on the control column instead of the throttle or power levers, a push instead of a pull action may occur and precipitate an accident. The difference between two seats, side by side, may seem superficial, but reversing the normal functions of the left and right hand is a significant change to the brain and learned habit patterns.

Procedural Errors - Are a general classification into which most maintenance errors fall. These errors represent a failure to follow established airworthiness control procedures; in particular, not reporting problems found to a central authority, not investigating the circumstances surrounding the error, not believing the results of the investigation, or not acting on the results. Of course, not following checklists lead to a majority of human errors by aircrews and maintenance crews alike. Not having checklists or having conflicting checklists or checklist items are serious management and supervisory problems. The lack of management and supervisory attention to these problems is a serious latent failure in itself The theory of latent and active failures was developed by Professor James Reason, Department of Psychology, University of Manchester, England.

Latent failures are those which may lie dormant within a technological system and do not in themselves cause an accident or incident. These failures become evident when combined with other events leading to an accident or incident.

Conversely, active failures are those often attributed to the actions of visible operators of the system: pilots, maintenance people, air traffic controllers, etc.

So study this article and see if any of it could apply to you and your flying. You might be amazed at how 'human' we all are!

A Growing Problem at Controlled Airports

Click on image to see enlargement

V/PD = Vehicle/Pedestrian
PD = Pilot Deviation
OE = Operational Errors

The FAA defines a runway incursion as "Any occurrence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, intending to take off, landing, or intending to land." FAA also only recognizes runway incursions as occurring at airports with operating control towers.

During a recent four-year period, total reported runwayincursions increased 54% from 186 to 287. Detailed investigations of these incidents have identified three major areas contributing to runway incursions:

1. Communications
2. Airport knowledge
3. Cockpit procedures for maintaining orientation.

The risk of being involved in a runway incursion can be greatly reduced by improving communications skills, increasing knowledge of airport taxiways and runways, and following cockpit procedures.

Keep Communications Clear and Concise

Effective pilot/controller communication is key to safe surface operations. Clear understanding of instructions should never be compromised, especially during busy times or when the frequency is congested. Listen before you transmit. If you are able, monitor radio communications to establish a "mental picture" of airportactivity. Think before keying your transmitter. Keep communications with the controller clear and concise, and follow recommended standard phraseology as indicated in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Never assume. Ensure you understand all instructions. Read back runway "hold short" instructions verbatim.

It sounds simple - know where you are and where you are going. In reality ground operations can be the most demanding and complex phase of flight. Detailed airport diagrams are helpful and are available on NOAA and other commercial vendors' approach charts. Although such diagrams are normally used by instrument-rated pilots, VFR pilots will also find them useful during surface operations.

1. Review airport diagrams before taxiing or landing.
2. Keep airport/taxi diagrams readily available during taxiing.
3. Request progressive taxiing instructions from air traffic control..
4. Be alert to airport vehicle and pedestrian activity
5. Follow Proper Cockpit Procedures.

Pilots can use proven and effective procedures in the cockpitto help conduct safe operations on the ground and during takeoff and landing. Maintain a sterile cockpit environment. Avoid unnecessary conversation during surface operations, takeoff, and landing. Constantly scan outside of the cockpit, especially when on runways. If lost while taxiing on the surface, contact air traffic control immediately. Make your aircraft visible by proper use of aircraft lights. If you are unfamiliar with the airport, again, do not hesitate to request progressive taxi instructions. Ensure proper radio operation and check audio panel, volume control, and squelch settings. Know and follow lost communication procedures, and use good judgment should radio failure occur.

Stay Alert, Especially in Low Visibility

Extra vigilance is required when visibility decreases, and the ability for pilots and controllers to maintain a desired level of situational awareness becomes significantly more difficult. During periods of reduced visibility, pilots should keep in mind:

1. Cockpit workload and distractions tend to increase.
2. As cockpit activity increases, attention to communications tends to decrease.
3. Fatigue levels increase.
4. Increased vigilance is needed when snow and other weather conditions obscure surface markings and make signs difficult and make signs difficult to use.

A CHALLENGE & A FREE DONUT

Because airports look so familiar, and one taxiway or runway is much like another, we humans tend to be less vigilant. In fact, we are seeing pilot after pilot not observing the taxiway/runway markings and blundering onto a runway causing an incursion and a safety hazard to himself/herself and others.

The rash of runway incursions we have been experiencing during the past may be tied to how we humans think. When a place is unfamiliar to us, our brains work hard to take in the details and keep us safe. As we become more familiar with a place, our minds chunk the information about it into clumps or patterns and we no longer need to be as observant

This "pattern making" habit helps us to do more than one task at a time by prioritizing our brain activity. Familiar situations get less conscious awareness and new or urgent situations take up the available primary attention.

Try this. Draw a map of your most familiar taxi route from tie-down to runway including the taxi and runway signs. Then check it out at the airport. If you have accurately included all the runway markings and signs, call me, I'll buy you a donut. My bet is that you can't.

WHAT ABOUT THE FREE DONUT?

Remember that challenge about runway signs and markings way back in February? Well, there is some very good information available about the subject you can get for yourself.

Runways Incursion and LAHSO (Land and Hold Short Operations) are now being taught at all Pilot Examiner seminars. Examiners are being tested on their knowledge of United States airport signs and markings. That means, you too will be tested on this material when you or your students present themselves for a practical test.

Some of the features we are seeing or soon will be seeing in the area are "Stop Bar Lights" and "Clearance Bar Lights. These improvements make taxiing in low visibility and at night more safe. The new markings are outlined in Advisory Circular (AC) 120-57, Surface Movement Guidance and Control System, called (SMGCS.)

The brochure Airport Markings, Signs, and Selected Surface Lighting FAA/ASY-20 95/001 that includes a detachable airport sight/marking guide designed to fit in an approach plate book. Is available. Call this automated telephone answering service at: (202) 267-7770. Or write to FAA/ASY-20, 400 7th Street, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20590. A complete version of the brochure can be obtained on the web at http://www.asy.faa.gov/safety_products.

Edited from an article in the February 2000 issue of the SoCal Aviation Safety Review by Kathleen O'Brien SPM, Long Beach FSDO. See her for donuts.

2000 Golden West EAA Regional Fly-In, September 8, 9 and 10

The 2000 Golden West EAA Regional Fly-In invites aviation enthusiasts to its annual event on September 8, 9 and 10. A condensed convention area with the show plane display areas only a SHORT walk from the exhibitor displays and other activities will make for an enjoyable event. However, "condensed" won't mean less and Golden West planners have made sure the convention site will be able to easily park the 1,500 aircraft and host the 150 exhibitors expected to arrive for the 3 day fly-in.

Another change to be appreciated by visitors will be more shade by using large hangars at either end of the central convention area.

Aircraft Spruce and Specialty is sponsoring an air race from their base at Corona, CA to Sacramento on Friday, September 8 with presentation of the race winners on Saturday. Friday will be designated Kids Day with special tours and speakers. The many Forums and Roundtable's will remain housed in tents in the central convention area. Aircraft Judging Awards will be presented on Sunday and each day will offer aerial demonstrations, manufacturer's showcase flights and pilot fly-bys. Careful planning for the Special Events will offer improved meals at the Friday evening Welcome dinner and Saturday evening dinner with a key-note speaker and music. FAA Seminars will also be presented each day.

Mark your calendar and make plans now to participate in the fun at the third annual Golden West EAA Regional Fly-In at Executive Airport, Sacramento, CA.

Golden West web site, Golden West EAA Regional Fly-in office at (916) 428-8429, or Fly-In Chairman, Bill George at (530) 642-8063..

The General Aviation Industry Awards Program is a cooperative effort between the FAA and industry sponsors to recognize outstanding individuals in the Aviation Maintenance Technician, Avionics Technician, and Certificated Flight Instructor fields. The Awards highlight the important role each play in promoting aviation safety and education. Winners will be nationally recognized at the Helicopter Association International Heli-Expo 2001 and receive valuable gifts and merchandise provided by the sponsors and contributors.

Applicants must be an active Aviation Maintenance Technician under FAR Part 65; an Avionics Technician actively employed by an FAA-certified Part 145 Repair Station; or an active Certificated Flight Instructor under FAR Part 61 operating within the United States. Applicants will be judged on the basis of specific accomplishments and sustained superior performance in their fields.

The application package should include the following: the application form, a resume of the applicant's professional accomplishments, an explanation of the top five contributions the applicant has made to the industry, with at least one during the past year (include instructional and/or professional techniques), an essay (1000 words or less) explaining why the applicant is deserving of this award), letters of recommendation pertinent to the type of award, a list of awards and recognition's given to the applicant, and supporting documentation (magazines/newspaper articles, etc., maximum of 10). Applications must be submitted to the applicant's Safety Program Manager at the Sacramento FSDO by November 1, 2000.

This recognition program is promoted by most of the professional organizations, manufactures, and suppliers of the General Aviation industry and is dedicated to giving recognition to the efforts and accomplishments of General Aviation professionals. The list of sponsors and industry contributors is equivalent to a "who's who" list for General Aviation.

The Sacramento District has many people who should apply for this award. You know who you are, and we know who you are; but it's up to you to submit the application. Ask an Inspector for an application form or call the FSDO and we will be glad to send you one.

Good luck.

 

End of Sacramento Area Seminars

WINGS PROFICIENCY
AWARD PROGRAM